Linkers of contrast, concession and result

Linking expressions explain how two ideas relate. Some show contrast, some acknowledge a surprising fact, and some give a reason or result. Choosing a linker means choosing both the relationship and the grammar that follows it.

Contrast and concession

Although, though and even though are followed by a complete clause:

Although the route was longer, we arrived first.
Even though the room was small, everyone found a seat.

Despite and in spite of are followed by a noun phrase or an -ing form:

Despite the longer route, we arrived first.
In spite of feeling tired, she finished the report.

To follow them with a clause, use the fact that: Despite the fact that it was raining, the match continued. This is correct, but often Although it was raining... is shorter.

Although expresses a concession: one fact seems to make the second surprising. Whereas and while often compare two facts without that surprise: The north branch opens at eight, whereas the south branch opens at nine.

Contrast between sentences

However, nevertheless and on the other hand can connect ideas across sentence boundaries:

The data were incomplete. However, they revealed a clear pattern.
The train is slower. On the other hand, it is cheaper.

Use a full stop or semicolon before however when it links two complete sentences: The data were incomplete; however, they revealed a pattern. A comma alone is not enough: The data were incomplete, however, they revealed a pattern.

On the contrary is stronger than however: it rejects a claim and presents its opposite. The change did not make the process simpler. On the contrary, it added two extra steps.

Use the relationship to choose before you rewrite

Start with two facts: The café was expensive. We ate there. If you expected us to avoid expensive places, a concession makes sense:

Although the café was expensive, we ate there.
Despite the high prices, we ate there.
The café was expensive. Nevertheless, we ate there.

These three versions express a similar unexpected outcome, but the following grammar differs.

To move from although to despite, change the structure too: Although she was tired becomes Despite being tired or Despite her tiredness. Replacing just the linker gives the error despite she was tired.

In Despite being tired, she finished the report, the person who was tired is she. If the subjects differ, keep that explicit: Despite his tiredness, she asked him to continue.

Even though and even if are different

Even though it was raining, we went out presents the rain as a fact. Even if it rains, we'll go out says that possible rain will not change the plan. The first acknowledges reality; the second considers a condition. Do not choose between them simply according to how strong you want the sentence to sound.

Reasons and results

Use because + clause and because of + noun phrase:

We stayed inside because it was raining.
We stayed inside because of the rain.

For results, so joins clauses: It was raining, so we stayed inside. Therefore, as a result and consequently often connect separate sentences: It was raining. As a result, the match was postponed.

Do not use because and so together for the same relationship: Because it was raining, so we stayed inside. Choose one structure. Also make sure a result linker really follows from the previous idea: The sample was small; therefore, we treated the findings cautiously is logical; a small sample does not necessarily prove a particular conclusion.

Make the linker fit the clause

A useful check is to look at the words immediately after the linker:

• Although + subject + verb: although the deadline was short
• Despite + noun/-ing: despite the short deadline / despite working late
• Because + clause: because the office was closed
• Because of + noun phrase: because of the closure
• So + clause: the office was closed, so we left

Cambridge explains although and though and the structure after despite.

Make the direction of cause and result visible

Consider The road was flooded. The bus was diverted. Flooding is the cause; diversion is the result.

The bus was diverted because the road was flooded.
The road was flooded, so the bus was diverted.

Because introduces the cause. So introduces the result. The event order does not change when the clause order changes.

A report can use The road was flooded. Consequently, the bus was diverted, but consequently needs proper sentence boundaries. Do not connect two full sentences with only a comma.

So and such can also introduce a result through degree:

The road was so badly flooded that the bus couldn't pass.
There was such severe flooding that the bus couldn't pass.

Use so + adjective/adverb and such + noun phrase; with a singular countable noun, include a/an: such a long delay. With much/many, use so: so much traffic, so many delays.

For natural writing, identify the one relationship the reader needs. Several linkers in succession can obscure it: Although it rained, but nevertheless we went out should become Although it rained, we went out. A clear sentence usually needs one well-chosen connector for each relationship.

Sources and further reading

• Cambridge Dictionary: Although or though?
• Cambridge Dictionary: In spite of and despite
• Cambridge Dictionary: Conjunctions