Advanced discourse markers

A discourse marker tells a reader or listener how to understand the relationship between one part of a conversation and another. However signals contrast; therefore presents a result; in other words reformulates an idea. A marker can guide the audience, but it cannot make an illogical connection logical. Choose one only after you know what relationship you mean.

Contrast, result and addition

The sample was small. However, the pattern was consistent.
The sample was incomplete; therefore, we delayed publication.
The course is flexible. Furthermore, it is free.

However and nevertheless introduce contrast or a limitation. Therefore and consequently present a conclusion or result. Moreover and furthermore add a point, often in formal writing. These words are not interchangeable: a high price does not therefore prove high quality, and a second advantage is not a contrast.

Sentence-initial markers are usually followed by a comma: Nevertheless, the team proceeded. When however joins two independent clauses, use a full stop or semicolon before it:

The trial ended; however, the analysis continued.
The trial ended. However, the analysis continued.

A comma alone creates a run-on sentence: ~~The trial ended, however, the analysis continued.~~ In contrast, although is a conjunction and can join clauses with a comma: Although the trial ended, the analysis continued.

Reformulating and shifting focus

In other words restates an idea more simply or explicitly: The system is asynchronous. In other words, replies need not be immediate. That is or that is to say can introduce a more precise formulation. Do not use them to introduce a new, unrelated claim.

Anyway can return to a topic, dismiss a digression or close a conversation: Anyway, let’s return to the budget. Its effect depends on context, and it can sound abrupt if it signals that the other person’s point is being brushed aside. In any case often means that a point holds regardless of the previous complication: The train may be delayed. In any case, we should leave now.

Besides can add another reason, often with a persuasive or conversational feel: The route is shorter; besides, it avoids tolls. It does not simply mean “and”. In formal reports, in addition may be more neutral.

Spoken markers and written markers

Conversation uses short markers such as well, so, right and actually to manage turns, introduce a response or correct an assumption:

Well, I see why you chose that option.
So, shall we begin with the first question?
Actually, the figure refers to last year.

These words can soften disagreement or buy a moment to think. In formal essays, too many conversational markers can make the tone uneven. Conversely, a spoken explanation with firstly, moreover, consequently in every sentence may sound stiff.

Let the logic do the work

A paragraph does not need a connector at the beginning of every sentence. Repetition of a key noun can provide a clearer link: The proposal has two weaknesses. The first is its cost. If the relation is obvious, no marker may be necessary. If a marker is needed, make sure its meaning matches the argument: on the contrary normally rejects or corrects a preceding claim, while however introduces a general contrast.

Near-neighbours that readers often confuse

In fact often introduces a correction, stronger evidence or a more precise statement: The building is not closed. In fact, it reopened this morning. Actually can correct an assumption too, but in conversation it may sound direct or even confrontational: Actually, the office closes at five. Tone depends on context.

On the other hand presents a second consideration, often a counterweight: The route is longer; on the other hand, it is safer. On the contrary rejects or reverses a previous claim: The change did not reduce costs. On the contrary, it increased them. Using the latter as a general synonym for however can misstate the relationship.

Meanwhile places two events in the same period or shifts attention to another development: The main team analysed the samples. Meanwhile, a second group checked the equipment. It does not by itself mean “as a result”. Still may mean “nevertheless” at the start of a sentence (Still, the evidence is incomplete) or “continuing” in another position (The evidence is still incomplete).

A note on punctuation and placement

Many linking adverbs can appear at the beginning, middle or end, but the position changes the rhythm and sometimes the scope:

Fortunately, the archive had a backup.
The archive, fortunately, had a backup.
The archive had a backup, fortunately.

When an adverb links two independent sentences, punctuation separates the clauses. A comma after however does not make it a conjunction: write The figures were incomplete; however, we could estimate the range, or use but to join the clauses. Sentence markers are also different from conjunctions such as although, because and while, which grammatically introduce subordinate clauses.

Read the previous sentence before inserting a marker. If therefore appears, the second idea should follow from the first. If on the other hand appears, there should be an actual alternative or counterpoint. This small logic check makes transitions trustworthy rather than ornamental.